Gender Issues in India: Inequality, Empowerment, Laws and Schemes for RBI Grade B ESI
Last updated: 2026-11-11 · MockMentor
"Gender Issues" is a separate line in the Social Structure in India unit of the RBI Grade B Phase 2 Economic and Social Issues (ESI) syllabus, and one of the most frequent sources of descriptive questions. Gender inequality affects growth (through low female labour force participation), human development (through health and education gaps) and justice (through violence and discrimination). This chapter covers the concepts, the state of women in India across areas of life, the legal and constitutional framework, the main schemes and the way forward.
In one line: India has closed most of the gender gap in schooling and health survival, but women remain far behind men in paid work, earnings, assets and political power, and face high levels of violence.
Basic concepts
- Sex and gender: sex refers to biological differences between males and females; gender refers to the roles, behaviour and expectations that a society assigns to men and women.
- Patriarchy: a social system in which men hold primary power in the family, property, politics and society.
- Gender equality: equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities for women, men and people of other genders.
- Gender equity: fairness in treatment, which may require special measures to make up for historical disadvantages.
- Women's empowerment: the process by which women gain power and control over their own lives, including access to resources, decision-making and freedom from violence.
- Gender mainstreaming: assessing the effect on women and men of every policy, law and programme at all stages.
- Glass ceiling: an invisible barrier that keeps women from rising to top positions.
- Feminisation of agriculture: the rising share of women in farm work as men migrate to non-farm jobs.
Why in News?
- In the World Economic Forum's Global Gender Gap Index 2026, released on 16 September 2026, India ranked 131st out of 145 countries with a score of 64.5%, unchanged in rank. Its weakest area was economic participation and opportunity (41.2% parity), while its best rank was in political empowerment (67th).
- The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2025 put the female labour force participation rate (LFPR) at 40.0% for women aged 15 and above, against 79.1% for men.
- The SRS Special Bulletin put India's Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) at 88 per 1 lakh live births for 2021-23, below the National Health Policy target of 100 but above the SDG target of 70 by 2030.
- In August 2026, the Prime Minister set a new target of 6 crore Lakhpati Didis (women in self-help groups earning at least ₹1 lakh a year), after the earlier target of 3 crore was crossed.
Status of women in India
Demography
- The sex ratio of the population was 943 in Census 2011, and the sex ratio at birth was 917 in 2021-23 (SRS), well below the natural level of about 950, showing continued son preference.
- The age of marriage has risen, but child marriage persists in some states; NFHS-5 (2019-21) found about 23% of women aged 20 to 24 married before 18.
Health
| Indicator | Status |
|---|---|
| Maternal Mortality Ratio | 88 per 1 lakh live births (2021-23), down from over 200 in the mid-2000s |
| Anaemia | 57% of women aged 15 to 49 were anaemic (NFHS-5) |
| Institutional deliveries | Nearly 89% (NFHS-5) |
| Life expectancy | Women live longer than men, at about 74 years against 71 (UN estimate for 2025) |
Education
Enrolment of girls in school is now equal to or higher than that of boys at most levels, and women's share in higher education has risen. Female literacy was 65.5% in 2011 against 82.1% for men. Girls still drop out more at the secondary level in some states, because of early marriage, household work, distance to school and safety concerns. Fewer women take up science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) careers than study them.
Work and economic participation
| Indicator | Women | Men |
|---|---|---|
| Labour force participation (PLFS 2025, age 15+) | 40.0% | 79.1% |
| Share in self-employment among workers | About 64% | About half |
Female LFPR has risen sharply from about 23% in 2017-18, but most of the increase is in rural self-employment, often as unpaid helpers in household farms and enterprises. Urban women's participation remains low. The main reasons include:
- The burden of unpaid care and domestic work. The Time Use Survey 2024 found that women spend far more time each day on unpaid domestic and care work than men.
- Social norms that restrict women's mobility and work outside the home, especially after marriage.
- Lack of safe transport and workplaces, and of childcare.
- Few jobs near home, and a mismatch between women's education and available jobs.
- An income effect: as household incomes rise, some families withdraw women from low-paid work.
- Wage gaps: women earn less than men for similar work, especially in casual labour.
Assets and finance
Women own a small share of land and property, despite equal inheritance rights under the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005. Jan Dhan accounts have greatly increased women's bank accounts, and self-help groups and MUDRA loans have expanded women's access to credit.
Political participation
| Indicator | Status |
|---|---|
| Women in the Lok Sabha (2024) | 74 members, about 13.6% |
| Women in Panchayati Raj institutions | Over 14 lakh elected representatives, about 46%, thanks to the 33% reservation (raised to 50% in many states) |
| Women's reservation in Parliament and state assemblies | The Constitution (106th Amendment) Act, 2023 (Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam) reserves one-third of seats for women, to take effect after the next census and delimitation |
"Sarpanch pati" (husbands acting on behalf of elected women) remains a problem in some places, but studies have found that women leaders in panchayats often give more priority to drinking water, sanitation and health.
Violence against women
Domestic violence, dowry deaths, sexual harassment, rape, acid attacks, trafficking and online harassment remain serious problems. NFHS-5 found that about 29% of ever-married women aged 18 to 49 had experienced physical or sexual violence by their spouse. Under-reporting is widespread because of stigma, fear and slow justice.
Constitutional and legal framework
Constitutional provisions
| Provision | What it says |
|---|---|
| Article 14 | Equality before law |
| Article 15(1) and 15(3) | No discrimination on grounds of sex; the state may make special provisions for women and children |
| Article 16 | Equality of opportunity in public employment |
| Article 39(a) and 39(d) | Equal right to livelihood and equal pay for equal work for men and women |
| Article 42 | Just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief |
| Article 51A(e) | A fundamental duty to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women |
| Articles 243D and 243T | Reservation of at least one-third of seats for women in panchayats and municipalities |
| Articles 330A and 332A | Reservation of one-third of seats for women in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies (2023) |
Main laws
| Law | Purpose |
|---|---|
| Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 | Bans giving and taking dowry |
| Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 (amended 2017) | 26 weeks of paid maternity leave and crèche facilities in establishments with 50 or more workers |
| Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 (now part of the Code on Wages, 2019) | Equal pay for equal work |
| Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, 1994 | Bans sex determination |
| Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 | Civil remedies against domestic violence, including protection and residence orders |
| Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 | Equal coparcenary rights for daughters in ancestral property |
| Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 | Bans marriage of girls below 18 and boys below 21 |
| Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 | Internal Complaints Committees in workplaces, based on the Vishaka guidelines of 1997 |
| Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 | Tougher laws on sexual offences after the Nirbhaya case |
| Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act, 2019 | Makes instant triple talaq void and punishable |
| Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 | Consolidates offences against women and children in a separate chapter |
The National Commission for Women (1992), set up under the National Commission for Women Act, 1990, reviews laws and safeguards for women and handles complaints.
Government schemes
| Area | Scheme |
|---|---|
| Girl child | Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (2015); Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana (2015) |
| Maternal health | Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (cash benefit of ₹5,000 for the first child, and ₹6,000 for a second child if a girl); Janani Suraksha Yojana; Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan |
| Nutrition | POSHAN Abhiyaan; Saksham Anganwadi and POSHAN 2.0 |
| Safety | Mission Shakti (2022), with "Sambal" (safety: One Stop Centres, Women Helpline 181, Nari Adalat) and "Samarthya" (empowerment: shelter homes, crèches); Nirbhaya Fund (2013) |
| Livelihoods | DAY-NRLM self-help groups and Lakhpati Didi (over 3 crore achieved, new target of 6 crore); Namo Drone Didi (drones for women's SHGs); Stand-Up India; MUDRA |
| Clean energy and homes | Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (LPG connections in women's names); PM Awas Yojana (houses in women's or joint names) |
| Finance | Mahila Samman Savings Certificate (2023 to 2025); Jan Dhan accounts |
| Education and skills | Scholarships for girls in STEM; women's hostels (one girls' hostel in every district under the Budget 2026-27) |
Gender budgeting
Gender budgeting assesses how government spending affects women and men. India has published a Gender Budget Statement with the Union Budget since 2005-06. It has two parts: schemes with 100% allocation for women, and schemes with at least 30% allocation for women. Critics note that a large part of the gender budget comes from a few big schemes, such as rural housing and employment, and that outcomes are not tracked well.
Why gender equality matters for the economy
- Higher female labour force participation could add significantly to GDP growth; several international studies have estimated large gains for India from closing the gap.
- Women's education improves child health, nutrition and schooling.
- Women's control over income tends to raise spending on children's needs.
- Diverse leadership improves decision-making in firms and governments.
Challenges
- Deep-rooted social norms and son preference.
- The double burden of paid and unpaid work.
- Lack of safe public spaces and transport.
- Low ownership of land and assets.
- Slow justice in cases of violence.
- Digital divide: fewer women own smartphones and use the internet.
- Under-representation in Parliament, the judiciary, the police and corporate boards.
Way forward
- Invest in the care economy: crèches, elder care and paid parental leave, so that care work is shared and women can take up paid jobs.
- Make cities and workplaces safe, with better lighting, transport and quick justice.
- Create jobs suited to women near their homes, in garments, food processing, electronics assembly and services.
- Enforce equal inheritance and land rights, and record women's names on land titles.
- Implement women's reservation in legislatures quickly after delimitation.
- Use gender budgeting to track outcomes as well as allocations.
- Change norms through education, media and the involvement of men and boys.
Possible exam and interview questions
- Female labour force participation in India has risen, yet remains low by global standards. Analyse the reasons and suggest measures to increase women's participation in paid work. (420 words)
- "Women's empowerment is the key to India's development." Discuss with reference to recent policies. (620 words)
- What is gender budgeting? How effective has it been in India?
- Explain the constitutional and legal safeguards for women in India.
- Interview: Will women's reservation in Parliament change policy outcomes for women?
Related reading: social justice and positive discrimination, human development, and employment generation.
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